Con il termine "rivoluzione scientifica" si intende quella profonda trasformazione concettuale verificatasi in Occidente nel XVII secolo in relazione al modo di studiare la natura e di intendere la funzione della scienza. Gli estremi di tale rivoluzione possono considerarsi il 1543, anno in cui fu astri celesti, e il 1687, quando Newton pubblicò I principi matematici di filosofia naturale. Infatti la Rivoluzione 1555-1600 scientific revolution begins with the astronomical and Copernicus, who with his theories make a radical change in viewpoint, arguing heliocentrism to the detriment of geocentrism. This idea had several consequences for the common thought of the time since these innovations caused the loss of any point of reference, the Earth, which had always been considered the center of the universe, is now being proclaimed one of many planets and man is no longer the center of creation, the discovery of America had already dealt a blow from a certain point of view, the Europe that came into contact with different civilizations and ancient unaware of the existence of which: here is that Europe itself was losing its central role in the Earth stessa.Il fundamental nature of this process of transformation was the new way of understanding the nature (already started during Humanism) and, consequently, the creation of an accurate method for studying it. More precisely, during the scientific revolution, was born a new type of knowledge, which still today call 'science', which places its bases on the reduction of nature to human subject research, freeing it from old mortgages purely metaphysical; it came to be conceived as an objective order, being alien to human needs and purposes, a random order, given that nothing happens by chance, but according to strict rules, a set of relations, because it is the duty of the researcher to dwell on the relationships between natural events between them, and consequently they are governed by laws. But what mainly distinguishes the science of 1600 the activity of ancient and medieval science, is quantitative. The previous scientific tradition, in fact, according to Aristotelian philosophy, proposed research of the "form" of vital phenomena, and therefore exhausted in purely qualitative analysis, because did not have the right tools to make precision measurements. The new scientific method is therefore based on the assumption that the essence of things is attainable or otherwise beyond the scope of science, which should instead investigate the relationships between things and express them through an objective measurement and universally communicable. For this new science is indispensable in the use of mathematics. Recognition of the importance of mathematics is certainly not a new modern age. But in ancient and medieval times this rule was designed mainly as an abstract science, which by its nature could not be applied to the analysis of natural phenomena. Its use was mostly limited to those areas in which reference was made to purely ideal relationships (as in music) or a substance by definition incorruptible and with smooth movement (as in astronomy Aristotelian). Now the math becomes instead a methodological tool to quantify the natural phenomena such as specific objects of scientific research, the use of mathematical calculation, through which many scientists came to the formulation of strict procedures to determine, on an experimental basis, the veracity of his ipotesi.Nel 1600 states the mechanism, which is the immediate consequence of the quantification of science: the necessary connection with which the different geometric proportions in mathematics or the different arithmetic and algebraic descended from each other becomes the need for physical with which the case is connected with the effect. Only in this way I can get to physical laws. Rather than in terms of "final causes", the new science and then interpret the connections between such phenomena as "efficient causes" and mechanical properties. In modern science, the connection between cause and effect, however, is not only determined by the mathematical tool, but also subject to empirical testing. In addition to mathematics, experimentation is the second half in which new scientists are recursive methods. The experiment, moreover, which (as mentioned) is the artificial reproduction of natural processes with complete observability, must make use of survey instruments and measurement increasingly sophisticated (eg. watches, binoculars, telescopes, barometers). It then establishes a close link between science and technology, both in the sense that the progress of science depends increasingly on technological advances that provide the resources needed to research, both in the sense that, conversely, it is claimed awareness of the potential practical scientific knowledge, to enable a broad and growing mastery over nature is a two-way relationship in the sense that increased technological development allows science to achieve appreciable results, but a more scientific development tools allows the creation of ever more precise, it can see well in Galileo : é solo grazie al telescopio che dimostra certe verità astronomiche , ma é solo grazie ad alcune conoscenze di ottica geometrica che riesce a costruire ( non ad inventare ) telescopi particolarmente raffinati . Così, si diffonde una mentalità sperimentale che, anziché affidarsi alle verità tramandate dagli antichi, preferisce sviluppare l’osservazione sistematica dei fenomeni e il controllo dei suoi risultati; la scienza viene quindi ad essere: un sapere sperimentale, dal momento che ogni ipotesi formulata veniva giustificata tramite successive verifiche; un sapere matematico, fondato sul calcolo e sulla misura, a causa di un’applicazione di regole matematiche alla fisica; un sapere comunitario, since its proceedings are public and accessible to all. With the emergence of nature as a single field of human inquiry, it is to outline a clear rift between science and natural magic (also developed age-humanistic Renaissance): the latter views the world as a living organism, that the magician played by an enigmatic and mysterious language, not accessible to all science, on the other hand, is opposed to the presence of occult qualities in the nature and against the procedures and rituals of initiation, since, as public knowledge, affirms the possibility for all human beings endowed with reason to know nature, and disseminates research results through a professional but easy to understand language, which the vulgar. If Galileo is credited with the theory of scientific method, we see two other scientists such as Descartes and Newton received the mathematics as a research tool, the first focusing on the geometric studies, the second developing the calculus and applied mathematics physical studies. The only scientist (who was primarily a philosopher) who did not use mathematics was Bacon, as he developed a method in which the physical or metaphysical studies applied to recognize without any effective role in scientific research. The appearance più significativo dei progressi della scienza nel corso del secolo XVIII è forse rappresentato dal grandissimo sviluppo della matematica infinitesimale; insigni studiosi come Leonardo Eulero, Giuseppe Lagrange, Brook Taylor, Etienne Bezzoute, seppero perfezionarla al punto da farne uno strumento straordinario per tutta l'indagine scientifica . L'analisi infinitesimale fu applicata sistematicamente anche nello studio dell'astronomia, dove si raggiunsero grandissimi risultati, che confermarono appieno la legge gravitazionale di Newton: tra i più straordinari fu la previsione della ricomparsa, da parte di Edmond Halley (1656-1742) della cometa che porta il suo nome, pienamente verificatasi.Diverse new branches of scientific knowledge began to grow, we study the electrostatic effects, laying the foundations systematic electrology; just think or Benjamin Franklin, at the end of the century, Charles De Coulomb, chemistry acquired by Antoine L. De Lavoisier its modern appearance, they began to analyze the thermal phenomena (born thermometric scales in use today). The development of theoretical science is accompanied and supported by the development of technology, especially the rapid perfection of the measuring instruments. Advances were realized in optics, timers, thermometers. In this period came the first steam engine in 1769 and already James Watt brevetta la sua celebre macchina, che sarà sul piano tecnico protagonista della rivoluzione industriale.
COPERNICO
Il nome di Niccolò Copernico è legato all’introduzione, nella scienza moderna, della concezione eliocentrica per cui il Sole è al centro dell’universo. Copernico è anche ricordato come l’antagonista del sistema tolemaico, nel quale la descrizione del moto dei corpi celesti era basata sull’ipotesi che fosse la Terra a occupare questo centro. La teoria cosmologica universalmente accettata prima dell’ipotesi copernicana concepiva l’esistenza di un universo geocentrico nel quale la Terra era fissa e immobile, al centro of several concentric spheres rotating. These spheres bore - from Earth and moving outwards - the following celestial bodies: Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and finally there were the endless outer spheres, which supported the so-called "star fixed "(the last ball was said to wobble slowly, thereby producing the precession of the equinoxes. Eratosthenes and Ptolemy both supported this theory. The work of Copernicus refuted Ptolemy's theory, that the universe is finite, in the form sphere, with Earth at its center, marked by the rotation of the heavens and the planets around the Earth still. Copernicus was compreso che, per studiare il “sistema del mondo” non era sufficiente prendere in considerazione la sola apparenza del moto delle stelle sulla volta celeste, ma anche quella del moto dei pianeti. L’ipotesi di Tolomeo era macchinosa; l’ipotesi più semplice (lui stesso usa il termine “ipotesi” nel parlare della sua teoria), era che i pianeti e, tra essi la Terra, ruotassero attorno al Sole a una maggiore o minore distanza da esso e con una maggiore o minore velocità. Egli, attuando quella che poi venne chiamata dal suo nome la “rivoluzione copernicana”, sostenne per contro che la cosmologia tolemaica, avente le sue radici in quella aristotelica e divenuta parte integrale della dottrina della Chiesa, was wrong, and argued:
1) The Earth could not be the center of the universe.
2) The Earth completes a triple movement:
a) day on its axis;
b) annually around the sun;
c) compared to the annual plan dell'ellittica.
Another important feature of the heliocentric theory is that it allowed a new ordering of the planets according to their periods of revolution. In the universe of Copernicus - unlike that of Ptolemy - the greater the radius of a planet, the more time it takes for the planet to make a trip around the Sun At first the hypothesis of the heliocentric Copernicus met with the indifference of official science although some thinkers, such as Giordano Bruno and Galileo Galilei , made it immediately and their dissemination. In 1615, due to issues with Galileo Galilei, the theory was officially condemned and put the book index. Although Copernicus had dedicated his great work to Pope Paul III, his astronomical doctrines were condemned by the Catholic theology is not only Protestant but also because they clash with the idea that God had placed the Earth at the center of the universe. Even if neglected and later opposed the heliocentric hypothesis of Copernicus was brought to the triumph of its simplicity and reliability. Final acceptance of the theory, after the effective support that led to Galileo Galilei, was when they tried to theoretically calculate the orbits of the planets and their motion: the Copernican theory was only able to allow the prediction of the motion of perfect planets in their orbits as well as observe them from Earth. We can therefore say that this was the work of scientists (on his deathbed that only saw the publication of his work) to found the modern astronomy.
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